Physical time for the beginning universe

TL;DR

This paper introduces a novel concept of physical time based on counting wave function oscillations, which remains well-defined at the universe's beginning and is independent of the metric frame, offering a universal clock system.

Contribution

It proposes a metric-independent, wave oscillation-based definition of physical time applicable to early universe epochs and compares it with geodesic proper time.

Findings

Photon clock counts infinite oscillations in inflationary models

Physical time aligns with conformal time for photon clocks

Clock system provides a universal, frame-invariant measure of time

Abstract

We propose that physical time is based on counting the oscillations of wave functions. The discrete counting of the ticks of these clocks does not depend on the metric frame. It remains well defined for the beginning epochs of the universe. The photon clock counts the oscillations of electromagnetic plane waves in the cosmic reference frame. It can be gauged with clocks for other massless or massive particles. These equivalent clocks form a clock system which defines a common universal continuous physical time. For the photon clock this physical time coincides with conformal time. The universe is eternal towards the past for typical models of inflationary cosmology -- the photon clock ticks an infinite number of times. We compare the photon clock system to geodesic physical time, which is a frame invariant generalization of proper time.