'Person' == Light-skinned, Western Man, and Sexualization of Women of Color: Stereotypes in Stable Diffusion

TL;DR

This study analyzes stereotypes in Stable Diffusion, revealing biases towards Western men, continental stereotypes, and oversexualization of women of color, highlighting concerning societal implications of AI-generated images.

Contribution

It provides a systematic examination of gender and nationality stereotypes in Stable Diffusion, including the novel use of CLIP similarity and NSFW detection to quantify biases.

Findings

Stable diffusion favors images of European/North American men for 'a person'

Continental stereotypes lead to misrepresentation of Indigenous Oceanic peoples

Women of color, especially Latin American, Mexican, Indian, and Egyptian, are oversexualized

Abstract

We study stereotypes embedded within one of the most popular text-to-image generators: Stable Diffusion. We examine what stereotypes of gender and nationality/continental identity does Stable Diffusion display in the absence of such information i.e. what gender and nationality/continental identity is assigned to `a person', or to `a person from Asia'. Using vision-language model CLIP's cosine similarity to compare images generated by CLIP-based Stable Diffusion v2.1 verified by manual examination, we chronicle results from 136 prompts (50 results/prompt) of front-facing images of persons from 6 different continents, 27 nationalities and 3 genders. We observe how Stable Diffusion outputs of `a person' without any additional gender/nationality information correspond closest to images of men and least with persons of nonbinary gender, and to persons from Europe/North America over Africa/Asia, pointing towards Stable Diffusion having a concerning representation of personhood to be a European/North American man. We also show continental stereotypes and resultant harms e.g. a person from Oceania is deemed to be Australian/New Zealander over Papua New Guinean, pointing to the erasure of Indigenous Oceanic peoples, who form a majority over descendants of colonizers both in Papua New Guinea and in Oceania overall. Finally, we unexpectedly observe a pattern of oversexualization of women, specifically Latin American, Mexican, Indian and Egyptian women relative to other nationalities, measured through an NSFW detector. This demonstrates how Stable Diffusion perpetuates Western fetishization of women of color through objectification in media, which if left unchecked will amplify this stereotypical representation. Image datasets are made publicly available.