The K2-3 system revisited: testing photoevaporation and core-powered mass loss with three small planets spanning the radius valley

TL;DR

This study characterizes the K2-3 exoplanet system around an M dwarf, analyzing high-energy stellar emissions and planetary parameters to evaluate atmospheric retention and formation theories, ultimately suggesting stochastic processes shape the system.

Contribution

It provides precise measurements of K2-3 planets' radii and masses, assesses atmospheric compositions, and challenges existing models like photoevaporation and core-powered mass loss for this system.

Findings

K2-3b and c likely lack solar composition atmospheres due to high-energy stellar output.

The system's architecture cannot be fully explained by photoevaporation or core-powered mass loss.

K2-3 planets are probably volatile-rich, with diverse formation and migration histories.

Abstract

Multi-planet systems orbiting M dwarfs provide valuable tests of theories of small planet formation and evolution. K2-3 is an early M dwarf hosting three small exoplanets (1.5-2.0 Earth radii) at distances of 0.07-0.20 AU. We measure the high-energy spectrum of K2-3 with HST/COS and XMM-Newton, and use empirically-driven estimates of Ly-alpha and extreme ultraviolet flux. We use EXOFASTv2 to jointly fit radial velocity, transit, and SED data. This constrains the K2-3 planet radii to 4% uncertainty and the masses of K2-3b and c to 13% and 30%, respectively; K2-3d is not detected in RV measurements. K2-3b and c are consistent with rocky cores surrounded by solar composition envelopes (mass fractions of 0.36% and 0.07%), H2O envelopes (55% and 16%), or a mixture of both. However, based on the high-energy output and estimated age of K2-3, it is unlikely that K2-3b and c retain solar composition atmospheres. We pass the planet parameters and high-energy stellar spectrum to atmospheric models. Dialing the high-energy spectrum up and down by a factor of 10 produces significant changes in trace molecule abundances, but not at a level detectable with transmission spectroscopy. Though the K2-3 planets span the small planet radius valley, the observed system architecture cannot be readily explained by photoevaporation or core-powered mass loss. We instead propose 1) the K2-3 planets are all volatile-rich, with K2-3d having a lower density than typical of super-Earths, and/or 2) the K2-3 planet architecture results from more stochastic processes such as planet formation, planet migration, and impact erosion.