Development of the Lymphatic System in the 4D XCAT Phantom

TL;DR

This paper enhances the XCAT phantom by integrating a detailed lymphatic system, enabling more realistic simulations for lymphoma imaging and aiding in the development of improved diagnostic and predictive tools.

Contribution

The authors developed and incorporated a comprehensive lymphatic system into the XCAT phantom, allowing for realistic simulation of lymph node pathologies and tumor characteristics.

Findings

Lymph nodes can be manipulated for realistic pathology simulation.

Optimized thresholding improves tumor volume measurement accuracy.

Gradient method yields the most accurate lesion glycolysis estimates.

Abstract

Purpose: The XCAT phantom allows for highly sophisticated multimodality imaging research. It includes a complete set of organs, muscle, bone, soft tissue, while also accounting for age, sex, and body mass index (BMI), which allows phantom studies to be performed at a population scale. At the same time, the XCAT phantom does not currently include the lymphatic system, critical for evaluating bulky nodal malignancies in lymphoma. We aimed to incorporate a full lymphatic system into the XCAT phantom and to generate realistic simulated images via guidance from lymphoma patient studies. Methods: A template lymphatic system was extended based on known anatomy was used to define 276 lymph nodes and corresponding vessels using non-uniform rational basis spline (NURBS) surfaces. Lymph node properties were modified using the Rhinoceros 3D viewing software. The XCAT general parameter script was used to input organ concentrations and generate binary files with uptake and attenuation information. Results: Lymph nodes can be scaled, stretched, and translated within the intuitive Rhinoceros interface, to allow for realistic simulation of different lymph node pathologies. Bulky, heterogeneous PMBCL tumours were generated in the mediastinum using expanded lymph nodes. Our results suggest that optimized thresholding provides better accuracy for determining total metabolic tumour volume (TMTV) of PMBCL tumours, while the gradient method was most accurate for total lesion glycolysis (TLG). Conclusions: An upgraded XCAT phantom with a fully simulated lymphatic system was created. Distributed to the research community, the XCAT phantom with the new lymphatic system has the potential of enabling studies to optimize image quality and quantitation, towards improved assessment of lymphoma including predictive modeling (e.g. improved TMTV and radiomics research).