SIRIUS Project. III. Star-by-star simulations of star cluster formation using a direct N-body integrator with stellar feedback

TL;DR

This paper introduces a new simulation code combining N-body and SPH methods to model star cluster formation at the star-by-star level, incorporating stellar feedback without gravitational softening.

Contribution

The development of extsc{ASURA+BRIDGE}, a novel code that enables detailed star-by-star simulations of cluster formation with feedback effects, without the need for gravitational softening.

Findings

Massive stars are ejected from forming clusters, affecting feedback.

Star formation is influenced by initial cloud virial states.

Resulting clusters are denser than observed open clusters, with hierarchical age structures.

Abstract

One of the computational challenges of cluster formation simulations is resolving individual stars and simulating massive clusters with masses of more than $10^4 M_{\odot}$ without gravitational softening. Combining direct $N$-body code with smoothed-particle hydrodynamics (SPH) code, we have developed a new code, \textsc{ASURA+BRIDGE}, in which we can integrate stellar particles without softening. We add a feedback model for \HII regions into this code, in which thermal and momentum feedback is given within the Str{\"o}mgren radius. We perform $N$-body/SPH simulations of star cluster formation. Without softening, a portion of massive stars are ejected from the forming clusters. As a result, the stellar feedback works outside the clusters. This enhances/suppresses the star formation in initially sub-virial/super-virial clouds. We find that the formed star clusters are denser than currently observed open clusters, but the mass--density relation is consistent with or even higher than that is estimated as an initial cluster density. We also find that some clusters have multiple peaks in their stellar age distribution as a consequence of their hierarchical formation.