# Shortcomings of Shapiro delay-based tests of the equivalence principle on cosmological scales

## TL;DR

This paper critically examines the use of Shapiro delay measurements for testing the equivalence principle on cosmological scales, revealing fundamental divergences and limitations in the standard approach.

## Contribution

It demonstrates that the standard calculation of Shapiro delay diverges on large scales and proposes using Fermi coordinates to address this issue, highlighting the limitations of current methods.

## Key findings

- Standard Shapiro delay diverges with many sources on cosmological scales.
- Fermi coordinates can cure the divergence in the Shapiro delay calculation.
- The computed delay depends on catalog completeness and mass estimates.

## Abstract

The "Shapiro delay" experienced by an astronomical messenger traveling through a gravitational field has been used to place constraints on possible deviations from the equivalence principle. The standard Shapiro delay used to obtain these constraints is not itself an observable in general relativity, but is rather obtained by comparing with a fiducial Euclidean distance. There is not a mapping between the constraints obtained in this manner and alternative theories that exhibit equivalence principle violations. However, even assuming that the comparison with the fiducial Euclidean distance is carried out in a way that is useful for some class of alternative theories, we show that the standard calculation of these constraints cannot be applied on cosmological scales, as is often done. Specifically, we find that the Shapiro delay computed in the standard way (taking the Newtonian potential to vanish at infinity) diverges as one includes many remote sources. We use an infinite homogeneous lattice model to illustrate this divergence, and also show how the divergence can be cured by using Fermi coordinates associated with an observer. With this correction, one finds that the Shapiro delay is no longer monotonic with the number of sources. Thus, one cannot compute a conservative lower bound on the Shapiro delay using a subset of the sources of the gravitational field without further assumptions and/or observational input. As an illustration, we compute the Shapiro delay by applying the Fermi coordinate expression to two catalogs of galaxy clusters, illustrating the dependence of the result on the completeness of the catalogue and the mass estimates.