# The rings of Neptune

## TL;DR

This paper reviews the discovery, properties, and evolution of Neptune's rings and arcs, highlighting their persistence and recent disappearance, and discusses models explaining their confinement and longevity.

## Contribution

It provides a comprehensive review of Neptune's ring arcs, their observational history, properties, and the constraints on models explaining their confinement and evolution.

## Key findings

- Neptune's ring arcs are confined within a 40° longitude range.
- The arcs have persisted for decades despite theoretical expectations of rapid dispersal.
- Recent observations show the disappearance of some arcs, indicating dynamic changes.

## Abstract

In 1984, three telescopes in South America recorded an occultation of a star near Neptune. It was attributed to the existence of a partial ring or ring arc. The existence of ring arcs around Neptune was confirmed during subsequent years via other occultation experiments and by the Voyager 2 spacecraft. The Voyager observations established that the Neptunian arcs are concentrations of particles embedded within Neptune's narrow Adams ring, the outermost of six tenuous rings discovered by Voyager and discussed here. Four ring arcs were identified: the trailing arc Fraternit\'e, a double-component arc Egalit\'e, dubbed Egalit\'e 1 and 2, Libert\'e, and the leading arc Courage. The arcs varied in extent from $\sim$ 1$^\circ$ to $\sim$ 10$^\circ$, and together were confined to a longitude range of 40$^\circ$, with typical radial widths of $\sim$ 15 km and optical depth of order 0.1. The properties of the dusty component of Neptune's rings are also discussed in this chapter. Although the arcs should have been destroyed in a few months time through differential Keplerian motion, they appeared to persist at least throughout the Voyager era, and well beyond. However, observations from Earth (both with the Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based adaptive optics) show an evolution in the last three decades, with the disappearance of both Courage and Libert\'e by 2009. This chapter reviews the constraints provided on the mean motion of the arcs and Galatea, the satellite possibly responsible for the arc confinement. This in turn constrains the various models that have been proposed to explain the arc longevity.