# Characteristics of extensive air showers around the energy threshold for ground-particle-based gamma-ray observatories

## TL;DR

This paper characterizes ground-level air showers from low-energy gamma-ray primaries around 1 TeV to aid the development of next-generation ground-based gamma-ray observatories, emphasizing detector size and muon identification.

## Contribution

It provides detailed parameterizations of ground-level observables for low-energy air showers, supporting the optimization of gamma-ray detectors at mountain altitudes.

## Key findings

- Large area detectors are essential for low-energy shower detection.
- Muon identification significantly improves background rejection.
- Parameterizations enable better detector design for 1 TeV gamma-ray showers.

## Abstract

Very high energy gamma-ray astronomy based on the measurement of air shower particles at ground-level has only recently been established as a viable approach, complementing the well established air Cherenkov technique. This approach requires high (mountain) altitudes and very high surface coverage particle detectors. While in general the properties of air showers are well established for many decades, the extreme situation of ground-level detection of very small showers from low energy primaries has not yet been well characterised for the purposes of gamma-ray astronomy. Here we attempt such a characterisation, with the aim of supporting the optimisation of next-generation gamma-ray observatories based on this technique. We address all of the key ground level observables and provide parameterisations for use in detector optimisation for shower energies around 1 TeV. We emphasise two primary aspects: the need for large area detectors to effectively measure low-energy showers, and the importance of muon identification for the purpose of background rejection.