# Limits on Protoplanet Growth by Accretion of Small Solids

## TL;DR

This study models the growth limits of small planetary cores by pebble accretion, revealing that high accretion rates lead to turbulent, dusty envelopes that hinder further core growth due to fragmentation and opacity effects.

## Contribution

It introduces detailed time-dependent envelope models including particle evolution and turbulence, providing new insights into pebble accretion constraints and envelope dynamics.

## Key findings

- Pebble fragmentation dominates over dust re-sticking.
- Envelope turbulence limits core growth rate to ~10^{-7} M_earth/yr.
- Envelope metallicity and opacity increase with accretion rate.

## Abstract

This paper identifies constraints on the growth of a small planetary core (0.3 M$_{\oplus}$) that accretes millimeter-sized pebbles from a gaseous disk. We construct time-dependent spherical envelope models that capture physical processes not included in existing global hydrodynamic simulations, including particle size evolution, dust transport, and realistic gas equations of state. We assume a low enough disk density that pebbles are marginally coupled to the gas and are trapped efficiently near the core Bondi radius. Pebbles then drift rapidly enough to experience erosion by sandblasting, mutual collisions, and sublimation of water ice. We find that pebble fragmentation is more efficient than dust re-sticking. Therefore the large pebble accretion rate $\dot{M}_p$ needed to build a core of mass > M$_{\oplus}$ leads to a high envelope metallicity and grain opacity. Above $\dot{M}_p$ $\sim 10^{-7}$ M$_{\oplus}$/yr, and without other luminosity sources, convective motions expand near the Bondi radius. The warm, dusty, and turbulent envelope buffers the inward drift of pebble debris: given a turbulent concentration factor $f_{turb} \geq$ 1 near the lower convective boundary, the core growth rate is limited to $1 \times 10^{-7} f_{turb}$ M$_{\oplus}$/yr and the e-folding time 3$f_{turb}^{-1}$ Myr. The remainder of the solid debris is expelled as highly processed silicates. Pebble ice never reaches the core, and the envelope contains comparable amounts of H2/He and metals. We interpret our results using simpler steady models and semi-analytical estimates. Future global simulations incorporating the processes modelled here are needed to understand the influence of rotation and vertical disk structure.