# On the thermal equilibrium state of large scale flows

## TL;DR

This paper investigates how different forcing methods in turbulent flows influence the large-scale energy spectrum, revealing conditions under which the large scales approximate a thermal equilibrium state or deviate from it.

## Contribution

It demonstrates how spectral forcing characteristics affect large-scale energy spectra and elucidates the interaction mechanisms governing equilibrium and non-equilibrium states.

## Key findings

- Spectrally-dense forcing leads to deviations from the $k^2$ spectrum.
- Spectrally-sparse forcing with short correlation times reproduces the thermal spectrum.
- Large scales act as a reservoir influenced by interactions with smaller turbulent scales.

## Abstract

In a forced three-dimensional turbulent flow the scales larger than the forcing scale have been conjectured to reach a thermal equilibrium state forming a $k^2$ energy spectrum. In this work we examine the properties of these large scales in turbulent flows with the use of numerical simulations. We show that the choice of forcing can strongly affect the behavior of the large scales. A spectrally-dense forcing (a forcing that acts on {\it all modes} inside a finite-width spherical shell) with long correlation times may lead to strong deviations from the $k^2$ energy spectrum, while a spectrally-sparse forcing (a forcing that acts only on a few modes) with short correlated time-scale can reproduce the thermal spectrum. It is shown that the spectrally-dense forcing allows for numerous triadic interactions that couple one large scale mode with two forced modes and this leads to an excess of energy input in the large scales. This excess of energy is then moved back to the small-scales by self-interactions of the large-scale modes and by interactions with the turbulent small-scales. The overall picture that arises from the present analysis is that the large scales in a turbulent flow resemble a reservoir that is in (non-local) contact with a second out-of equilibrium reservoir consisting of the smaller (forced and turbulent) scales. If the injection of energy at the large scales from the forced modes is relative weak then the large-scale spectrum remains close to a thermal equilibrium and the role of long-range interactions is to set the global energy (temperature) of the equilibrium state. If, on the other hand, the long-range interactions are dominant, the large-scale self-interactions cannot respond fast enough to bring the system into equilibrium. Then the large scales deviate from the equilibrium state with energy spectrum that may display exponents different from the $k^2$ spectrum.