A Critical Review of the Lunar Laser Ranging

TL;DR

This paper reviews the history, methodology, and results of Lunar Laser Ranging experiments, comparing data from 1962 to 2007, and discusses the unexpected lack of signal amplification from retroreflectors.

Contribution

It provides a comprehensive overview of LLR experiments, including measurement principles, theoretical derivations, and analysis of historical data and anomalies.

Findings

Retroreflectors did not produce expected signal amplification.

Measured photon counts aligned with lunar surface scattering.

Retroreflectors may have degraded or measurements only captured lunar soil signals.

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of the Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) experiments. The measurement principle is explained and its theory is derived. Both contributions, the direct reflected light from retroreflectors as well as the scattered light from the lunar surface are considered. The measurement results from the Sixties until 2007 are then compared between different LLR stations and with the theoretical forecast. The very first experiment was in 1962: a laser beam was directed to the Moon and the scattered light from the lunar surface was detected. The number of received photons was in line with the theory. Then from 1969 the laser beams were directed to retroreflectors placed by Apollo astronauts and Luna space crafts. Retroreflectors are on the one hand reference points for long term measurements; on the other hand they deliver a much stronger return signal compared to the scattered return. But none of the stations could measure the expected amplification of the retroreflectors. The number of received photons remained in line with measurements to the bare surface of the Moon. Therefore either all retroreflectors have degraded such that their return signals fit to the scattered return from the lunar soil or the measurements were indeed taken to the lunar surface only.