TL;DR
This paper reviews current theories on super-Earth formation, including core accretion, atmospheric evolution, and observational comparisons, highlighting their origins, evolution, and the importance of primordial envelopes.
Contribution
It provides a comprehensive summary of super-Earth formation processes, integrating formation, thermal evolution, atmospheric loss, and observational data.
Findings
Super-Earths often form with primordial hydrogen and helium envelopes.
Atmospheric mass loss mechanisms significantly shape super-Earth characteristics.
Resonant configurations in multi-planet systems are rare.
Abstract
Super-Earths are the most abundant planets known to date and are characterized by having sizes between that of Earth and Neptune, typical orbital periods of less than 100 days and gaseous envelopes that are often massive enough to significantly contribute to the planet's overall radius. Furthermore, super-Earths regularly appear in tightly-packed multiple-planet systems, but resonant configurations in such systems are rare. This chapters summarizes current super-Earth formation theories. It starts from the formation of rocky cores and subsequent accretion of gaseous envelopes. We follow the thermal evolution of newly formed super-Earths and discuss their atmospheric mass loss due to disk dispersal, photoevaporation, core-cooling and collisions. We conclude with a comparison of observations and theoretical predictions, highlighting that even super-Earths that appear as barren rocky cores…
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