# Compositional imprints in density-distance-time: a rocky composition for close-in low-mass exoplanets from the location of the valley of evaporation

## TL;DR

This study models how planetary composition influences evaporation signatures, revealing that close-in low-mass exoplanets are likely rocky and formed inside the water ice line, with observable effects on their radius and density distributions.

## Contribution

It demonstrates how evaporation imprints depend on core composition, providing new insights into the formation and evolution of low-mass exoplanets based on statistical features.

## Key findings

- Evaporation valley location indicates rocky composition for close-in low-mass planets.
- Density-radius relations reveal transitions from solid to gas-dominated planets.
- Observed trends suggest planets formed inside the water ice line with subsequent migration.

## Abstract

We use an end-to-end model of planet formation, thermodynamic evolution, and atmospheric escape to investigate how the statistical imprints of evaporation depend on the bulk composition of planetary cores (rocky vs. icy). We find that the population-wide imprints like the location of the "evaporation valley" in the distance-radius plane and the corresponding bimodal radius distribution clearly differ depending on the bulk composition of the cores. Comparison with the observed position of the valley (Fulton et al. 2017) suggests that close-in low-mass Kepler planets have a predominately Earth-like rocky composition. Combined with the excess of period ratios outside of MMR, this suggests that low-mass Kepler planets formed inside of the water iceline, but still undergoing orbital migration. The core radius becomes visible for planets losing all primordial H/He. For planets in this "triangle of evaporation" in the distance-radius plane, the degeneracy in compositions is reduced. In the observed diagram, we identify a trend to more volatile-rich compositions with increasing radius (R/R_Earth<1.6 rocky; 1.6-3.0 ices and/or H/He; >3: H/He). The mass-density diagram contains important information about formation and evolution. Its characteristic broken V-shape reveals the transitions from solid planets to low-mass core-dominated planets with H/He and finally to gas-dominated giants. Evaporation causes density and orbital distance to be anti-correlated for low-mass planets, in contrast to giants, where closer-in planets are less dense, likely due to inflation. The temporal evolution of the statistical properties reported here will be of interest for the PLATO 2.0 mission which will observe the temporal dimension.