# Opacity limit for supermassive protostars

## TL;DR

This paper models the evolution of supermassive protostars from initial formation to billion-solar-mass scales, identifying the opacity limit and providing a sub-grid recipe for simulations, with implications for feedback processes.

## Contribution

It introduces a detailed model of supermassive protostar evolution, including the opacity limit and a new sub-grid prescription for numerical simulations.

## Key findings

- Opacity limit density n_F ≈ 2×10^{17} cm^{-3}
- Protostar radius growth from 0.65 AU to 250 AU
- Photo-ionization feedback negligible until late stages

## Abstract

We present a model for the evolution of supermassive protostars from their formation at $M_\star \simeq 0.1\,\text{M}_\odot$ until their growth to $M_\star \simeq 10^5\,\text{M}_\odot$. To calculate the initial properties of the object in the optically thick regime we follow two approaches: based on idealized thermodynamic considerations, and on a more detailed one-zone model. Both methods derive a similar value of $n_{\rm F} \simeq 2 \times 10^{17} \,\text{cm}^{-3}$ for the density of the object when opacity becomes important, i.e. the opacity limit. The subsequent evolution of the growing protostar is determined by the accretion of gas onto the object and can be described by a mass-radius relation of the form $R_\star \propto M_\star^{1/3}$ during the early stages, and of the form $R_\star \propto M_\star^{1/2}$ when internal luminosity becomes important. For the case of a supermassive protostar, this implies that the radius of the star grows from $R_\star \simeq 0.65 \,{\rm AU}$ to $R_\star \simeq 250 \,{\rm AU}$ during its evolution. Finally, we use this model to construct a sub-grid recipe for accreting sink particles in numerical simulations. A prime ingredient thereof is a physically motivated prescription for the accretion radius and the effective temperature of the growing protostar embedded inside it. From the latter, we can conclude that photo-ionization feedback can be neglected until very late in the assembly process of the supermassive object.