# Loading a linear Paul trap to saturation from a magneto-optical trap

## TL;DR

This study investigates the steady-state ion number in a linear Paul trap under various loading conditions, revealing nonlinear behaviors explained by simulations and theory, with implications for trap capacity and ion dynamics.

## Contribution

The paper provides experimental measurements, simulations, and analytical theory that elucidate the nonlinear loading behavior and the role of the pseudopotential and chaos border in a linear Paul trap.

## Key findings

- Identification of two loading regions: rise and plateau.
- The pseudopotential explains the plateau but not the initial rise.
- Existence of a radial cut-off related to chaos border.

## Abstract

We present experimental measurements of the steady-state ion number in a linear Paul trap (LPT) as a function of the ion-loading rate. These measurements, taken with (a) constant Paul trap stability parameter $q$, (b) constant radio-frequency (rf) amplitude, or (c) constant rf frequency, show nonlinear behavior. At the loading rates achieved in this experiment, a plot of the steady-state ion number as a function of loading rate has two regions: a monotonic rise (region I) followed by a plateau (region II). Also described are simulations and analytical theory which match the experimental results. Region I is caused by rf heating and is fundamentally due to the time dependence of the rf Paul-trap forces. We show that the time-independent pseudopotential, frequently used in the analytical investigation of trapping experiments, cannot explain region I, but explains the plateau in region II and can be used to predict the steady-state ion number in that region. An important feature of our experimental LPT is the existence of a radial cut-off $\hat R_{\rm cut}$ that limits the ion capacity of our LPT and features prominently in the analytical and numerical analysis of our LPT-loading results. We explain the dynamical origin of $\hat R_{\rm cut}$ and relate it to the chaos border of the fractal of non-escaping trajectories in our LPT. We also present an improved model of LPT ion-loading as a function of time.