High temperature condensate clouds in super-hot Jupiter atmospheres

TL;DR

This paper investigates the formation and impact of high-temperature condensate clouds in super-hot Jupiter atmospheres, highlighting the role of refractory materials and metallicity in cloud properties and observational signatures.

Contribution

It provides a detailed analysis of condensate formation at high temperatures, emphasizing the influence of metallicity on cloud mass and opacity in super-hot Jupiters.

Findings

Refractory condensates remain in vapor phase at high temperatures.

Metal-rich atmospheres likely form thicker, more opaque clouds.

Cloud properties are significantly affected by metallicity and temperature.

Abstract

Deciphering the role of clouds is central to our understanding of exoplanet atmospheres, as they have a direct impact on the temperature and pressure structure, and observational properties of the planet. Super-hot Jupiters occupy a temperature regime similar to low mass M-dwarfs, where minimal cloud condensation is expected. However, observations of exoplanets such as WASP-12b (Teq ~ 2500 K) result in a transmission spectrum indicative of a cloudy atmosphere. We re-examine the temperature and pressure space occupied by these super-hot Jupiter atmospheres, to explore the role of the initial Al- and Ti-bearing condensates as the main source of cloud material. Due to the high temperatures a majority of the more common refractory material is not depleted into deeper layers and would remain in the vapor phase. The lack of depletion into deeper layers means that these materials with relatively low cloud masses can become significant absorbers in the upper atmosphere. We provide condensation curves for the initial Al- and Ti-bearing condensates that may be used to provide quantitative estimates of the effect of metallicity on cloud masses, as planets with metal-rich hosts potentially form more opaque clouds because more mass is available for condensation. Increased metallicity also pushes the point of condensation to hotter, deeper layers in the planetary atmosphere further increasing the density of the cloud. We suggest that planets around metal-rich hosts are more likely to have thick refractory clouds, and discuss the implication on the observed spectra of WASP-12b.