Where are all of the nebulae ionized by supersoft X-ray sources?

TL;DR

This paper argues that most supersoft X-ray sources (SSSs) are embedded in low-density environments, explaining the scarcity of observed nebulae and suggesting a need to revise models and survey strategies for detecting these ionized regions.

Contribution

It demonstrates that SSSs typically reside in lower density media than previously assumed, revises the model of their nebulae, and proposes survey strategies to detect more of these ionized regions.

Findings

Most SSSs are in low-density ISM environments.

CAL 83 is in an unusually dense ISM region.

Probability of such dense environment is about 18%.

Abstract

Accreting, steadily nuclear-burning white dwarfs are associated with so-called close-binary supersoft X-ray sources (SSSs), observed to have temperatures of a few$\times 10^{5}$K and luminosities on the order of $10^{38}$erg/s. These and other types of SSSs are expected to be capable of ionizing their surrounding circumstellar medium, however, to date only one such nebula was detected in the Large Magellanic Cloud (of its 6 known close-binary SSSs), surrounding the accreting, nuclear-burning WD CAL 83. This has led to the conclusion that most SSSs cannot have been both luminous ($\gtrsim 10^{37}$erg/s) and hot ($\gtrsim$ few $\times 10^{4}$K) for the majority of their past accretion history, unless the density of the ISM surrounding most sources is much less than that inferred for the CAL 83 nebula (4--10$\rm{cm}^{-3}$). Here we demonstrate that most SSSs must lie in much lower density media than CAL 83. Past efforts to detect such nebulae have not accounted for the structure of the ISM in star-forming galaxies and, in particular, for the fact that most of the volume is occupied by low density warm \& hot ISM. CAL 83 appears to lie in a region of ISM which is at least $\sim 40$-fold overdense. We compute the probability of such an event to be $\approx 18\%$, in good agreement with observed statistics. We provide a revised model for the "typical" SSS nebula, and outline the requirements of a survey of the Magellanic clouds which could detect the majority of such objects. We then briefly discuss some of the possible implications, should there prove to be a large population of previously undiscovered ionizing sources.