The Origin of Superflares on G-Type Dwarf Stars of Various Ages

TL;DR

This paper investigates the origins and characteristics of superflares on G-type dwarf stars, estimating their energies, emission sources, and potential for detection, to understand stellar activity evolution and particle acceleration processes.

Contribution

It provides new estimates of superflare energies on young Sun-like stars and links optical, microwave, and lithium emissions to flare mechanisms.

Findings

Maximum flare energy estimated at 10^{34} erg for young Sun.

Optical continuum source area similar to large solar flare ribbons.

Predicted microwave emission of about 2 mJy at 100 pc for stellar superflares.

Abstract

We analyze new observations of superflares on G-stars discovered in the optical and near IR ranges with the Kepler mission. An evolution of solar-type activity is discussed. We give an estimate of the maximal total energy, $E_{tot} = 10^{34}\;\mbox{erg}$ of a flare that can occur on the young Sun at its age of 1 Gyr when the cycle was formed. We believe that the main source of the flare optical continuum is a low-temperature condensation forming in the course of the response of the chromosphere to an impulsive heating. For a superflare on the young Sun, we adopt the accelerated electron flux, $F_e (E>\mbox{20 keV}) = 3 \times 10^{11} \: \mbox{erg} \; \mbox{cm}^{-2} \; \mbox{s}^{-1}$, that is limited by the return current, and obtain the area of the optical continuum source on a G star, $S \approx 10^{19} \:\mbox{cm}^2$. This value is close to the area of the $H_\alpha$-ribbons in the largest solar flares, while the area of bright patches of a white-light flare on the contemporary Sun is smaller by about two orders of magnitude. At the same electron flux and the hard electron spectrum, the stellar flare of the similar energy should be accompanied by the microwave source of about 2 mJy at frequencies 10--100 GHz at distance 100 pc. We discuss the possible detection of the flare-produced lithium in the course of spallation reactions. The detection of the flare microwave source and the emission in the Li resonant line could demonstrate how effective can be particle acceleration on stars in the lower part of the main sequence.