High-mass star formation at high luminosities: W31 at >10^6 L_sun

TL;DR

This study investigates the high-luminosity W31 star-forming complex across multiple wavelengths, revealing diverse evolutionary stages, complex kinematics, and a clump mass function consistent with previous findings, advancing understanding of massive star formation.

Contribution

It provides a comprehensive multi-wavelength analysis of W31 at luminosities above 10^6 L_sun, highlighting evolutionary diversity and large-scale kinematic properties in high-mass star formation regions.

Findings

Different evolutionary stages coexist within W31.

Large velocity range (~90 km/s) observed across the region.

Clump mass function slope of 1.5 aligns with previous cloud studies.

Abstract

Context: High-mass star formation has been a very active field over the last decade, however, most studies targeted regions of luminosities between 10^4 and 10^5 L_sun. Methods: We selected the W31 star-forming complex with a total luminosity of ~6x10^6 L_sun for a multi-wavelength spectral line and continuum study covering wavelengths from the near- and mid-infrared via (sub)mm wavelength observations to radio data in the cm regime. Results: While the overall structure of the multi-wavelength continuum data resembles each other well, there are several intriguing differences. The 24mum emission stemming largely from small dust grains follows tightly the spatial structure of the cm emission tracing the ionized free-free emission. Hence warm dust resides in regions that are spatially associated with the ionized hot gas (~10^4 K) of the HII regions. Furthermore, we find several evolutionary stages within the same complexes, ranging from infrared-observable clusters, via deeply embedded regions associated with active star formation traced by 24\,$\mu$m and cm emission, to at least one high-mass gas clump devoid of any such signature. The 13CO(2-1) and C18O(2-1) spectral line observations reveal a large kinematic breadth in the entire region with a total velocity range of approximately 90 km/s. While the average virial mass ratio for W31 is close to unity, the line width analysis indicates large-scale evolutionary differences between the southern and northern sub-regions (G10.2-0.3 and G10.3-0.1) of the whole W31 complex. The clump mass function - tracing cluster scales and not scales of individual stars - derived from the 875mum continuum data has a slope of 1.5+-0.3, consistent with previous cloud mass functions.