Early supernovae light-curves following the shock-breakout

TL;DR

This paper develops analytic models for early supernova light curves, emphasizing non-thermal equilibrium effects, and predicts observable features that depend on progenitor type and explosion parameters.

Contribution

It provides new analytic light curve models accounting for photon-gas coupling deviations, improving interpretation of early supernova observations.

Findings

Early peaks in optical/UV flux for red supergiants within an hour after breakout

X-ray flares are expected from all core-collapse supernovae

Initial breakout spectra reveal information about explosion geometry and progenitor wind opacity

Abstract

The first light from a supernova (SN) emerges once the SN shock breaks out of the stellar surface. The first light, typically a UV or X-ray flash, is followed by a broken power-law decay of the luminosity generated by radiation that leaks out of the expanding gas sphere. Motivated by recent detection of emission from very early stages of several SNe, we revisit the theory of shock breakout and the following emission. We derive analytic light curves, paying special attention to the photon-gas coupling and deviations from thermal equilibrium. We then consider the breakout from several SNe progenitors. We find that for more compact progenitors, white dwarfs, Wolf-Rayet stars (WRs) and possibly more energetic blue-supergiant explosions, the observed radiation is out of thermal equilibrium at the breakout, during the planar phase (i.e., before the expanding gas doubles its radius), and during the early spherical phase. Therefore, during these phases we predict significantly higher temperatures than previous analysis that assumed equilibrium. When thermal equilibrium prevails, we find the location of the thermalization depth and its temporal evolution. Our results are useful for interpretation of early SN light curves. Some examples are: (i) Red supergiant SNe have an early bright peak in optical and UV flux, less than an hour after breakout. It is followed by a minimum at the end of the planar phase (about 10 hr), before it peaks again once the temperature drops to the observed frequency range. In contrast WRs show only the latter peak in optical and UV. (ii) Bright X-ray flares are expected from all core-collapse SNe types. (iii) The light curve and spectrum of the initial breakout pulse holds information on the explosion geometry and progenitor wind opacity. Its spectrum in compact progenitors shows a (non-thermal) power-law.