PROSAC: A Submillimeter Array survey of low-mass protostars. II. The mass evolution of envelopes, disks, and stars from the Class 0 through I stages

TL;DR

This study uses high-resolution submillimeter observations and radiative transfer modeling to analyze the mass evolution of envelopes, disks, and stars from Class 0 to I protostellar stages, revealing key trends in mass distribution and accretion.

Contribution

It provides the first detailed mass estimates of envelopes and disks across early protostellar stages using high-resolution data and modeling, clarifying mass evolution.

Findings

Envelope mass decreases sharply from Class 0 to I.

Disks have 1-10% of envelope mass in Class 0, 20-60% in Class I.

Central stars contain 70-98% of total mass in late Class I.

Abstract

The key question about early protostellar evolution is how matter is accreted from the large-scale molecular cloud, through the circumstellar disk onto the central star. A sample of 20 Class 0 and I protostars has been observed in continuum at (sub)millimeter wavelengths at high angular resolution with the Submillimeter Array. Using detailed dust radiative transfer models, we have developed a framework for disentangling the continuum emission from the envelopes and disks, and from that estimated their masses. For the Class I sources in the sample, HCO+ 3-2 line emission has furthermore been observed with the Submillimeter Array. Four of these sources show signs of Keplerian rotation, constraining the masses of the central stars. Both Class 0 and I protostars are surrounded by disks with typical masses of about 0.05 M_sun. No evidence is found for a correlation between the disk mass and evolutionary stage of the young stellar objects. This contrasts the envelope mass, which decreases sharply from 1 M_sun in the Class 0 stage to <0.1 M_sun in the Class I stage. Typically, the disks have masses that are 1-10% of the corresponding envelope masses in the Class 0 stage and 20-60% in the Class I stage. For the Class I sources for which Keplerian rotation is seen, the central stars contain 70-98% of the total mass in the star-disk-envelope system, confirming that these objects are late in their evolution through the embedded protostellar stages. Theoretical models tend to overestimate the disk masses relative to the stellar masses in the late Class I stage. The results argue in favor of a picture in which circumstellar disks are formed early during the protostellar evolution and rapidly process material accreted from the larger scale envelope onto the central star.