The Runts of the Litter: Why planets formed through gravitational instability can only be failed binary stars

TL;DR

This paper examines whether gravitational instability can form planets around A stars, concluding that such planets are likely the low-mass end of a spectrum of disk-born objects, with formation conditions being very restrictive.

Contribution

It provides a detailed analysis of the conditions under which gravitational instability can produce planetary-mass objects, highlighting the narrow parameter space required.

Findings

Disks must be unusually cold for planetary formation via gravitational instability.

Fragmentation occurs in a narrow window during disk evolution.

Most objects formed are likely to grow into brown dwarfs or stars.

Abstract

Recent direct imaging discoveries suggest a new class of massive, distant planets around A stars. These widely separated giants have been interpreted as signs of planet formation driven by gravitational instability, but the viability of this mechanism is not clear cut. In this paper, we first discuss the local requirements for fragmentation and the initial fragment mass scales. We then consider whether the fragment's subsequent growth can be terminated within the planetary mass regime. Finally, we place disks in the larger context of star formation and disk evolution models. We find that in order for gravitational instability to produce planets, disks must be atypically cold in order to reduce the initial fragment mass. In addition, fragmentation must occur during a narrow window of disk evolution, after infall has mostly ceased, but while the disk is still sufficiently massive to undergo gravitational instability. Under more typical conditions, disk-born objects will likely grow well above the deuterium burning planetary mass limit. We conclude that if planets are formed by gravitational instability, they must be the low mass tail of the distribution of disk-born companions. To validate this theory, on-going direct imaging surveys must find a greater abundance of brown dwarf and M-star companions to A-stars. Their absence would suggest planet formation by a different mechanism such as core accretion, which is consistent with the debris disks detected in these systems.